One of the primary distinctions is that religiousness tends to relate to a particular religious tradition. There is significant overlap between these terms with both having personal and group elements, emotional and cognitive elements, and experiential elements. Although a variety of approaches may be used, for an adequate development of this field, it is important to define terms operationally so that they can be studied effectively. This latter issue has significant implications for research as the practices might be studied using different approaches from the experiences ( Nash and Newberg, 2013). Measurement and Definition of Spirituality and Religiousness DefinitionsĪs someone who has studied the neurophysiology of a variety of practices with both spiritual and non-spiritual goals, I have realized that great importance and complexity in first trying to define spirituality and religiousness as terms and also to differentiate spiritual experiences from spiritual practices ( Newberg, 2010). This paper will review four components of this area of research with a critical perspective on methodology and analysis: (1) appropriate measures and definitions (2) subject selection and comparison groups (3) study design and (4) theological and epistemological perspectives. The best way to develop this field is to determine the methodological issues that currently affect the field and explore how best to address such issues so that future investigations can be as robust as possible. ![]() Studies of meditation practices not related to a particular religious or spiritual tradition still provide information that may contribute to the overall study of religious and spiritual phenomena, but that is not the focus of this paper. There are fewer studies on specifically spiritual practices. However, it should also be noted that there are a substantial number of studies that have evaluated meditation practices that are not specifically spiritual (i.e., secular mindfulness programs). At the outset, it should be stated that the focus of this paper is specifically on practices that have a spiritual or religious context such as prayer, speaking in tongues, or certain types of meditation. The recently expanding field of research exploring the neuroscience of religious and spiritual practices and associated experiences has raised important issues regarding the validity, importance, relevance, and need for such research. Overall, a neuroscientific study of spiritual practices and experiences has the potential to provide fascinating data to further our understanding of the relationship between the brain and such phenomena. Such studies confront unique challenges for scientific methodology including determining the most appropriate objective measures such as neuroimaging studies and physiological parameters, and correlating them with subjective measures that help capture states of spiritual significance. These studies have helped elucidate the neurobiological mechanisms associated with spiritual practices. Current studies have utilized neuroimaging techniques including functional magnetic resonance imaging, single photon emission computed tomography, and positron emission tomography. ![]() There are many types of spiritual practices that might be studied including prayer and meditation, as well as unusual practices such as mediumistic trance states, speaking in tongues, and also drug-induced experiences. ![]() The purpose of this paper will be to provide a perspective on the current state of the research evaluating the neurobiological correlates of spiritual practices and review the methodological issues that confront this research field. ![]() Myrna Brind Center of Integrative Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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